Structures or other constructed works are supported on the earth by foundations. The word “foundation” may mean the earth itself, something placed in or on the earth to provide support, or a combination of the earth and the elements placed on it. The foundation for a multistory office building could be a combination of concrete footings and the soil or rock on which the footings are supported. The foundation for an earth-fill dam would be the natural soil or rock on which the dam is placed. Concrete footings or piles and pile caps are often referred to as foundations without including the soil or rock on which or in which they are placed. The installed elements and the natural soil or rock of the earth form a foundation system; the soil and provide the ultimate support of the system. Foundations that are installed may be either soil-bearing or rock-bearing. The reactions of the soil or rock to the imposed loads generally determined how well the foundation system foundations. In designing the installed portions, the designer must determine the safe pressure which can be used on the soil or rock and the amount of total settlement and differential settlement which the structure can withstand.
地球上的建筑物或其他结构工程由基础支撑。“Foundation”可以指地基本身，也可以指地基上或埋入地基中起支撑作用的建筑结构，或者是用于承载的地基和构件的总称。多层办公建筑的基础由混凝土底座与支撑基础的土壤或岩石共同构成。土坝的基础由天然的土壤和大坝下面的岩石构成。混凝土底座或桩和桩帽经常指基础（不包括支撑基础的土壤或岩石）。已装配构件和地球的天然土壤或岩石构成了地基基础结构；荷载主要由土壤和岩石承受。建成基础可以由土壤承载，也可以由岩石承载。土壤和岩石对加在其上的荷载的反映决定了该基础的好坏。做基础设计，设计者必须确定土壤或岩石所能承受的安全压力和沉降量以及建筑物能够承受的不均匀沉降量。
The installed parts of the foundation system may be footings, mat foundations, slab foundations, and caissons or piles, all of which are used to transfer load from a superstructure into the earth. These parts, which transmit load from the superstructure to the earth, are called the substructure (Fig.1).
基础的装接部分可以是底座、筏基、平板基础和沉箱或桩，所有基础都被用于把荷载从上部结构传递到地基。把荷载从上部结构传递到地基的这些部分结构被成为下部结构。
Footings. Footings or spread foundations are used to spread the loads from columns or walls to the underlying soil or rock. Normally, footings are constructed of reinforced concrete. However, under some circumstances they may be constructed of plain concrete or masonry. When each footings supports only one column, it is square. Footings supporting two columns are called combined footings and may be either rectangular or trapezoidal. Cantilever footings are used to carry loads from two columns, with one column and one end of the footing placed against a building line or exterior wall. Footings supporting walls are continuous footings (Fig.2).
底座。底座或延伸的基础都用来把荷载从柱或墙传递到下面的土壤或岩石。通常情况下，底座是钢筋混凝土结构。但是，在某些环境下，底座也采用素混凝土或砖石结构。当一个底座仅支撑一个柱时，底座是方型的。当底座支撑两个柱时，底座被称为联合式基础，它可以是长方型的或梯形的。悬臂基础用于承载两根柱传递的荷载,其中一根柱和底座的末端靠房基线或外墙放置。支撑墙的底座是连续基础（如图2）。
第二篇：
Control. Progress control is obtained by comparing actual performance on the work against the desired performance set up on the master or detailed schedules. Since delay on one feature of the project could easily affect the entire job, it is often necessary to add equipment or crews to speed up the work.
控制。进度控制是通过比较工程实际进度与主要（或详细）进度表中确定的预期进度来进行的。既然工程被耽误的一项进度会轻易影响整个工程进度，所以通常有必要增加设备和人力以加快施工进度。
Cost control is obtained by comparing actual unit costs for individual work items against estimated or budgeted unit costs, which are set up at the beginning of the work. A unit cost is obtained by dividing the total cost of an operation by the number of units in that operation.
造价控制是通过比较实际每个工程项目的单位造价与工程开始时的计划（或预算）单位造价来进行的。单位造价是通过工程总造价除以工程单位数量得到的。
Typical units are cubic yards for excavation or concrete work and tons for structural steel. The actual unit cost for any item at any time is obtained by dividing the accumulated costs charged to that item by the accumulated units of work performed.
典型的单位是挖方或混凝土工程的立方码和结构钢的吨位。任何时间任何项目的实际单位造价为那个项目所花费的累计费用除以那个项目的累计单位数量。
Individual work item costs are obtained by periodically distributing job costs, such as payroll and invoices to the various work item accounts. Payroll and equipment rental charges are distributed with the aid of time cards prepared by crew foremen. The cards indicate the time spent by the job crews and equipment on the different elements of the work. The allocation of material costs is based on the quantity of each type of material used for each specific item.
单个工程项目花费可通过周期性分配的工程费用计算出来，如各种工程项目账目的工资单和发票。工资单和设备租金分配根据工头提供的记时卡片进行。记时卡片记录了工作人员的工作时间及工程不同项目的设备使用时间。材料造价的分配由每个具体项目所用的每种类型材料的数量决定。
When the comparison of actual and estimated unit costs indicates an overrun; an analysis is made to pinpoint the cause. If the overrun is in equipment costs, it may be that the equipment has insufficient capacity or that it is not working properly. If the overrun is in labor costs, it may be that the crews have too many men, lack of proper supervision, or are being delayed for lack of materials or layout. In such cases time studies are invaluable in analyzing productivity.
当实际单位造价和预算单位造价超过一定界限的时候，就需要分析其原因了。如果是设备费用超标，可能是源于设备不足或运转失常。如果是人力造价超标，可能源于人员超编，或缺乏正确的监管，或因材料和设计图纸匮乏耽误了工程。在这种情况下，时间因素对生产率作用不大。
Construction operations are generally classified according to specialized fields. These include preparation of the project site, earthmoving, foundation treatment, steel erection, concrete placement, asphalt paving, and electrical and mechanical installations. Procedures for each of these fields are generally the same, even when applied to different projects, such as buildings, dams, or airports. However, the relative importance of each field is not the same in all cases.
通常根据专门领域对工程施工进行分类。工程施工包括工程选址、土方工程、地基处理、钢材装配、混凝土浇注、沥青铺设和机电设备安装等。通常各个领域施工程序基本相同，甚至对不同的工程如建筑、大坝、或飞机场等也是如此。然而对所有工程每个领域其重要程度却不尽相同。
Preparation of site. This consists of the removal and clearing of all surface structures and growth from the site of the proposed structure. A bulldozer is used for small structures and trees. Larger structures must be dismantled.
清理场地。清理场地包括清除建筑场地表面和从设计建筑地点开始建造。小型建筑物和树木靠推土机清除。大型建筑物必须拆除。
Earthmoving. This includes excavation and the placement of earth fill. Excavation follows preparation of the site, and is performed when the existing grade must be brought down to a new elevation. Excavation generally starts with the separate stripping of the organic topsoil, which is later reused for landscaping around the new structure. This also prevents contamination of the nonorganic material which is below the topsoil and which may be required for fill. Excavation may be done by any of several excavators, such as shovels, draglines, clamshells, cranes, and scrapers.
土方工程。土方工程包括土方的挖掘和换填。清理场地之后便是土方挖掘工作，当必须把现有的斜坡削成立面时，也需要进行土方挖掘。通常土方挖掘先将有机表土分别挖除，竣工后还可将其用于新建筑物周围景观工程。土方挖掘也利于防止表土下非有机材料的污染或换填。土方挖掘可用任何挖掘机进行，如单斗挖掘机、拉铲挖掘机、蛤壳式挖泥机、起重机和铲运机等。
Efficient excavation on land requires a dry excavation area, because many soils are unstable when wet and cannot support excavating and hauling equipment. Dewatering becomes a major operation when the excavation lies below the natural water table and intercepts the groundwater flow. When this occurs, dewatering and stabilizing of the soil may be accomplished by trenches, which conduct seepage to a sump from which the water is pumped out. Dewatering and stabilizing of the soil may in other cases be accomplished by wellpoints and electroosmosis.
地面高效土方挖掘需要一个干燥的挖掘区域，因为许多土浸湿后就不稳定了并且也不能支撑起挖掘和牵引设备。当挖方位于自然地下水面以下时或有地下水流经时，排水就成为一个主要的工序。出现这种情况时，排水和岩土稳定可以靠地沟完成，地沟将水引入集水池中后再排除。在其他情况下排水和岩土稳定也可用井点和电渗透法进行。
Some materials, such as rock, cemented gravels, and hard clays, require blasting to loosen or fragment the material. Blast holes are drilled in the material; explosives are then placed in the blast holes and detonated. The quantity of explosives and the blast-hole spacing are dependent upon the type and structure of the rock and the diameter and depth of the blast holes.
某些材料，如岩石、粘结砾石和硬粘土，需要爆破使其松碎。在材料中钻好炮眼，然后放入炸药并引爆。用药量和炮眼间距取决于岩石的类型和构造以及炮眼的直径和深度。
After placement of the earth fill, it is almost always compacted to prevent subsequent settlement. Compaction is generally done with sheep’s-foot, grid, pneumatic-tired, and vibratory-type rollers, which are towed by tractors over the fillas it is being placed. Hand-held, gasoline-driven rammers are used for compaction close to structures where there is no room for rollers to operate.
回填土平整后，通常需要夯实以防止出现附加沉降量。通常用羊蹄压路机、网格压路机、气压-轮胎压路机和振动压路机进行压实，用电机牵引压路机以压实填土。当建筑物周围没有空间进行压实操作时，就采用手夯锤和气压锤。
Foundation treatment. When subsurface investigation reveals structural defects in the foundation area to be used for a structure, the foundation must be strengthened. Water passages, cavities, fissures, faults, and other defects are filled and strengthened by grouting. Grouting consists of injection of fluid mixtures under pressure. The fluids subsequently solidify in the voids of the strata. Most grouting is done with cement and water mixtures, but other mixture ingredients are asphalt, cement and clay, and precipitating chemicals.
地基处理。当地下勘察表明地基区域存在不良地层时，必须加固地基。存在水路、天然洞穴、裂缝、断层和其它缺陷时，可用灌浆方法进行填筑和加固。灌浆是通过压力作用注入液态混合物，进入地层间隙并随后凝固。大多数灌浆采用水泥和水的混合物，但是还有其他混合物，包括沥青、水泥和粘土以及沉淀性化学物质。
Steel erection. The construction of a steel structure consists of the assembly at the site of mill-rolled or shop-fabricated steel sections. The steel sections may consist of beams, columns, or small trusses which are joined together by riveting, bolting, or welding. It is more economical to assemble sections of the structure at a fabricating shop rather than in the field, but the size of preassembled units is limited by the capacity of transportation and erection equipment. The crane is the most common type of erection equipment, but when a structure is too high or extensive in area to be erected by a crane, it is necessary to place one or more derricks on the structure to handle the steel. In high structures the derrick must be constantly dismantled and reerected to successively higher levels to raise the structure. For river bridges the steel may be handled by cranes on barges, or, if the bridge is too high, by traveling derricks which ride on the bridge being erected. Cables for long suspension bridges are assembled in place by special equipment that pulls the wire from a reel, set up at one anchorage, across to the opposite anchorage, repeating the operation until the bundle of wires is of the required size.
钢结构装配。钢结构制作一般在钢结构组件车间或工厂中预制。钢结构由梁、柱或小型桁架组成，用铆钉、螺栓或焊接进行联接。在制造厂装配比现场加工更为经济，但受到运输和装配设备能力的限制。起重机是最常用的安装设备，但当建筑物太高或占地面积太大时，用起重机不能进行操作，就有必要设置一个或多个桅杆起重机来装配钢结构。高层施工时桅杆起重机必须不断地随建筑物逐渐增高而拆卸。对于江河上的桥梁，可采用浮吊起重机装配钢结构，如果桥梁过高，可在在建的桥梁上安装移动式起重机来装配钢结构。对于较长悬吊桥可用专门的设备就地安装钢索，钢索由卷轴拉动，先固定在一个桥墩上，再穿越邻近的桥墩，依次如此重复，直到达到要求的尺寸。
Concrete construction. Concrete construction consists of several operations: forming, concrete production, placement, and curing. Forming is required to contain and support the fluid concrete within its desired final outline until it solidifies and can support itself. The form is made of timber or steel sections or a combination of both and is held together during the concrete placing by external bracing or internal ties. The forms and ties are designed to withstand the temporary fluid pressure of the concrete.
混凝土施工。混凝土施工包括以下几个步骤：拼装模板、混凝土制作、浇筑、养护等。拼装模板是按最终设计外形容纳和支撑液态混凝土直至混凝土硬化并能自我支撑。模板由木板或钢板或由二者组合而成，混凝土浇注期间由外部拉条或内部拉杆箍紧在一起。模板和拉杆用于抵抗混凝土暂时的液态压力。
The usual practice for vertical walls is to leave the forms in position for at least a day after the concrete is placed. They are removed when the concrete has solidified or set. Slip-forming is a method where the form is constantly in motion, just ahead of the level of fresh concrete. The form is lifted upward by means of jacks which are mounted on vertical rods embedded in the concrete and are spaced along the perimeter of the structure. Slip forms are used for high structures such as silos, tanks, or chimneys.
通常竖墙施工要等混凝土浇注后至少等一天才可拆卸模板。等混凝土硬化或凝固后就可将模板拆除。滑模施工是模板不断移动的方法，正好放置在新拌混凝土浇注之前。起重机装配在固定于混凝土平台上的竖直支杆上，布置在建筑物的周围，用来提升模板。滑模施工用于象筒仓、油罐或烟囱等高层建筑物上。
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